Materials-Preface

The Ainus — that enigmatical people who have aroused amongst anthropologists an interest perhaps keener than any other — are a doomed race. Although at present, - - that is in the course of the last score of years, they have not been dying out, owing to the generous endeavours of the Japanese Government and of many excellent private members of that nation, still they are perishing as to the characteristics of their race. They are being swiftly and not unwillingly assimilated with their more civilized neighbours, who, inspired with a desire to atone for the wrong done by their forefathers, have systematically done everything to protect them; and since the beginning of the memorable era of the Mej-ji, they have even raised them to a position of fellow - citizenship with themselves. Of that great tribe - - possibly the most ancient of all the white races — which formerly played so important a part in the Far East, there is only a remnant left at the present day: about 20,000, scattered over the most northern island of Japan, Hokaido (or Yeso), the South of Saghalien (called in Japanese Karafuto) and one of the Kurile Islands, Shikotan.
At present the Ainus are in many places engaged in farming, breeding horses, and fishing on an extensive scale; but till quite lately they were semi-nomads and fishermen of a primitive type. The dog was the only domestic animal they had. In Yeso, it aided the hunter; in Saghalien. it was also used as a beast of burden. The huts were made of bark or of reeds; the Ainus of Saghalien and the Kurile Islands alone built (and dug) earth-houses for winter use.
As to their religion, it shows traces of fire-worship and the worship of ancestors. There is besides a very distinct cult of animals and of anthropomorphic rulers of nature, upon a basis of primitive animism. A widespread faith exists in the magic potency of certain objects and persons.
The Ainus are divided into various territorial totemic groups, amongst which endogamy is the rule, and exogamy the exception. Polygamy is permitted. At present there exists a mixed system of relationship, but the family tie on the female is stronger than that on the male side. The brother of the mother is even at present the head of the family. The sister ha.s, in her own family, more privileges than her brother's wife. The chiefs in each group enjoy hereditary power; but in any particular case of incapacity, the group has the right to choose a more able chief. The assembly of influential elders has legislative and judicial authority.

The whole 18 years and more of my sojourn in the Far East was involuntary. Constantly longing to return to my native land, I strove as much as I could to get rid of the painful feeling that I was an exile, in bondage and torn from all that was dearest to me. I therefore naturally felt attracted towards the natives of Saghalien, who alone had a true affection for that country, their immemorial dwelling-place, detested by those who formed the penal colony there. When in contact with these children of nature whom the invasion of an utterly different form of civilisation had bewildered, I knew that I possessed some power and helpfulness, even though deprived of every right, and during the worst years of my existence. Besides, having had my schooling at Wilno, in those evil days when cruel attempts were made to force upon the schol contempt of our past and our national culture, and coerce us to speak the foreign intruders' language — I have always endeavoured to live and act so as not to be numbered amongst the hateful destroyers of individual and national rights. I have felt deep pleasure in conversing with men of another race in their own language — even when that language was Russian. I know by my own heart - what has also been confirmed by many experience with others — that for the life of the soul, one's native speech is what the sun is for organic life: beaming upon it, giving it warmth, feeling, and disposing it to disclose its secret places, and to manifest the treasures hidden away in its depths. It has been pleasant to me to bring some joy and the hope of a better future into the minds of these simple tribesmen, troubled by reason of the hardships of life, which continually increase. The hearty laughter of amused children, the tears of emotion in the eyes of kind women, a faint smile of gratitude on the face of a sick man, exclamations of approval, or a light tap on the shoulder given by a good friend as a sign that he was pleased: such was the balm with which I willingly relieved the hardship of my fate.
When, later, I gradually took interest in ethnographical pursuits, and set with a more fixed purpose to gather materials, I recognized how important a factor the knowledge of language is to the investigator. Without this, even the material conditions of a tribe cannot be well studied; and still less can its beliefs, customs, family and tribal life or its past existence and present aspirations be adequately investigated.
It is only by means of conversation in the native language — other indispensable qualities being of course supposed to exist — that an atmosphere of friendly feeling can be formed, in which the object — the living Man — is found to answer the Ainu of research; either breaking a command of silence Imposed by his fellow tribesmen, or else touching painful wounds which he dislikes even to mention.

III

It was in 1896 that I came in contact with them for the first time, when the prison authorities sent me to the south of Saghalien in order to build and fit out a meteorological station, and also to make a small collection of objects ethno-graphically connected with the Ainus. I remained with them, however, too short a time to arrive at any decided result. But even then the outward appearance of the Ainu people, — which strongly recalled types to be found in Europe, now reminding one of Jews, now of Russian peasants, and now of Gipsies, — and still more their language, that sounded very melodious to my ear, with its subtle and (as it were) caressing shades of tone, struck me so powerfully that I frequently found myself desiring to know them at least as well as I know the Ghilyaks who inhabit North Saghalien.

In 1902, the desired opportunity came. I was then in Vladivostock. The St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences desired me to return to Saghalien and make a considerable ethnographical collection amongst the Ainus. I started in the summer of that year; but when I had accomplished what I had been sent to do, I was so deeply interested that I made up my mind to remain longer in South Saghalien, in order to become more completely acquainted with it, and with Ainu life. I was kindly assisted in realising this intention- of mine by the Russian Committee of the International Society for the Investigation of Central and Eastern Asia; to whose President (V. RadlofF, member of the Academy) and Secretary (Dr L. Sternberg) I wish here to express my deepest gratitude. In the course of three years, I received through these gentlemen a sum of about li. 225, which materially helped me in my undertaking. My stay amongst the Ainus lasted till the spring of 1905.

In the summer of 1903, I also visited the Ainus in Hokaido (or Yeso), having got the necessary leave (by the kind intervention of Mr P. Semionoff, the excellent Vice-President of the Russian Geographical Society, in St. Petersburg) to go abroad and join Mr W, Sieroszewski, the well-known explorer of the Yakuts, who was at the time engaged in making researches there. The time of our visit happened to be badly chosen; it was just before the war, and much excitement prevailed among the population; so that we were obliged prematurely to interrupt our work, and leave the purpose of our visit unattained. I nevertheless got a good opportunity of comparing one branch of the Ainu race with the other. Besides, I had now an opportunity, not only of increasing my store of general knowledge of this tribe, by conversation with Mr Sieroszewski — and, as I had started for Saghalien with little previous scientific equipment, that store was of course somewhat scanty, - - but also of receiving cheering encouragement from a fellow-countryman, fresh from European civilisation.

But, to return to my Saghalien expedition. When in Vladivostock, I could find in the Geographical Society's Library only one book — a dictionary of Ainu, by Davidoff, that was of but little use to me; and on going to Saghalien. I had to spend the first months almost exclusively in studying the language. My experience amongst the Ghilyaks had taught me that there is no better means of learning than writing out legends from dictation, and trying to make out the sense. Besfdes, one gets more quickly into intellectual touch with a native by talking with him about things in which he is interested, than by the artificial and tedious methods of Berlitz or Ollendorff. The Ainu folk-lore is, by the general admission of the Far Eastern tribes, exceedingly abundant. The proportion of Ainus acquainted with either one kind or another of these primitive tales is — to my own knowledge -- greater than with the Ghilyaks. Their lore of eloquence, of speeches, and of song, is quite astonishing, and has already been remarked by several travellers. It was not so difficult, then — even from the beginning — to collect those myths and songs which the greatest bard of Poland (Adam Mickiewicz) has called an "Ark of the Covenant fast — Binding in one the Present and the Past !)"; and which the famous Max Milller has named, ''antiquities, preserved for hundreds, it may be for thousands of years, showing us, far better than any stone weapons or stone idols, the growth of the human mind during a period which, as yet, is full of the most perplexing problems to the psychologist, the historian, and the theologian" 2).

Yet, as always happens with labours of this kind, obstacles were not wanting. First of all, at the time when I arrived, the Ainu were deeply absorbed in husbandry, and having received from the Russian Government permission to fish in certain bays where the Japanese fishermen had previously had their factories, they had started a number of fishing companies; and whereas they had iormerly worked as the servants of the Japanese, they were now in the position of masters, and their minds were much taken up with the business details of the whole affair. On one hand, then, want of time, and on the other more advantageous pecuniary circumstances rendered them less eager to accept the small re-numerations I could afford. Again, the increasing love of good cheer and festivities, caused by these very circumstances, was a not less untoward factor, since in those drinking feasts of theirs all profitable conversation was out of the question.
Besides, such conversation had mostly to be carried on in winter: at other seasons, people are engaged in other occu-
*) Mickiewicz, Conrad Vallenrod, translated by M. H. Dziewicki. ') Preface of Max Milller to the "Myths and Songs from the South Pacific" by tfev. W. W. Gill. 1876.
pations, and it is an Ainu saying that "the rats will laugh at a man who tells stories in summer". Another drawback was the touchiness they manifested and the great attention they paid to the judgment of others, whether as to the propriety of telling such and such a tale to a stranger, or as to the manner in which it was told. It is also a characteristic of men of the Far East, that they go to the extreme contrary of boasting! and very often it is hard work to get an able man to show his ability, especially in speech. I was often met by such answers as: "A child born but yesterday, how can I tell thee aught?" or "My father died in my infancy, and taught me nothing". Or again: "I am foolish; what will thou learn of me? go to that man. he is wise"; pointing to one known and disliked as a braggart. Let me add that the Ainus believe there is danger from goblins for anyone who talks much of the things of old times, especially when adventures with devils form the subject, that cannot but be offensive to them. To such there often appears a goblin in a whirlwind of sand, demanding to know what has been said about him; the teller has to relate his story once more; and woe to him then, if he does not tell it truly!
In general, the Ainus live under a sense of fear in presence of the unknown powers of nature which they, in their primitive state, have not been able to overcome. That is why, not only during, but even before a sea-voyage, they are loath to speak of any adventures or phenomena connected with the sea; and the same is true of their hunting expeditions. When women go to work in harvest time, they will never tell any legendary lays about the sun or the stars, for fear lest these luminaries should be offended and cause such darkness that they might lose their way home. True, anything is permissible to the old and decrepit, who cannot go outside to work, for no danger can threaten them at home; but these of course have other reasons to be silent; and as a matter of fact they are the least liable to be drawn out. For these reasons, I was able at first only to get into touch with men who had had a great deal to do with Russians, and consequently were partly spoilt for my purpose.
There were other difficulties, moreover, which in the first times rendered my labour of translation exceedingly hard. Even those Ainus who lived nearest the penal settlements spoke a fearfully broken Russian, on account of the various nationalities they met with amongst the exiles; and as to the others, they could speak no language but Japanese. So, though unacquainted with that language, I was forced to use a Russo-Japanese pocket dictionary, and often to enlist the services of Japanese gentlemen who lived in Khorsakoff: to whom -and especially to Mr T. Yamaguchi, — I iiere take the opportunity of expressing my tbanks. But even they did not remove my difficulties, for the Ainus often used a special dialect of Japanese which was completely unintelligible to them, and we had to recur to the assistance of Hokaido men of the lower classes.
I hoped I might be aided by those Ainu children who were studying in a school I had managed to start; for I had experience how useful they could be, by the instance of a Ghilyak boy whose education I had undertaken, and who subsequently went to school in Vladivostock, and now was the first teacher in this Ainu school of which I was the manager. But the children made comparatively little progress, with the exception of arithmetic and writing (both in their own language, though the latter was in Russian characters): as to the Russian language, they cared little for it, and asked to be taught Japanese instead; which, however, the authorities did not see their way to permit.
In time, nevertheless, I found some intelligent young men, who understood what I wanted of them in the way of translation. But the difficulty of getting at the precise grammatical forms, and the general tediousness of the whole work, became in most cases so fearfully wearisome that they were very prompt to find various pretexts — domestic duties, etc., --in order to avoid such mental fatigue. Gradually I made the acquaintance of a larger circle of people, and they came in time to the conviction that I was both friendly and not unable to render them service with the Russians — presenting requests, asking for permissions, taking their part in disputes with the settlers or misunderstandings with the local authorities; — and then they began to be more willing to have dealings with me. Even those elders who had from time immemorial the exclusive privilege of converse with foreigners, came at last to forgive this my breach of tradition, and themselves helped me to find the men most able to serve my purpose.
It was under such circumstances, and in the course of one journey to the South East shore, and another to the North (Bay of Patience), that I was enabled to collect what I think to be the best specimens of all my store of Ainu texts. There was even a certain time when my assistants vied with each other, eager for praise from me for their intelligence, friendliness and perseverance in this work. But at the best of times it was hard work to get them to undertake the weary labour of dictation, instead of giving me a flowing but less important narrative.
Things became very different after the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese war. Everywhere, and amongst the Ainus also, there was feverish anxiety, and uncertainty as to the future: this was but natural, if we consider how near Saghalien is to Japan, whence an invasion might be expected any day. Moreover, great discouragement soon prevailed, on account of the economic losses that the island, which was almost completely dependent upon the trade with Japan, suffered by the war.
When mortality - - especially as a consequence of influenza — began to increase, their feelings of dissatisfaction found vent, and I repeatedly heard complaints against a Government 'unable to protect its own subjects'; and the feeling which prompted these complaints was sometimes unfortunately, turned against me, as a white man more closely related to the Russians than to them. I therefore, being anxious about the materials I bad collected, and also convinced that a further sojourn in the territory would be fruitless in any case, betook myself to North Saghalien, where I presently received permission to leave Siberia and to return to my native country, just ten days before the island was invaded and taken by the Japanese.
In this connection, let me thank all the persons in authority in Saghalien, who from the highest rank to the lowest, were ready to assist me. and often even beyond the extent that their official duties required.

For some time afterwards, the feeling that a part of my task remained unaccomplished, — together with other and more personal motives — tempted me to accept a proposal which had been made, that I should return amongst the Ainus to make yet fuller researches. But I had another and a most unforeseen opportunity of meeting my Ainus once more: viz., the Anglo-Japanese Exhibition in London, 1910. where I found four male and as many female natives of Ho-kaido. from the district of the Saru river. I had. through the kind influence of Dr E. Divers, President of the Scientific Section of the Exhibition and of Mr Beppu, one of the Japanese Commissionaries. received permission from the Exhibition authorities to talk freely with the natives as much as I chose. Notwithstanding the necessary inconvenience and drawbacks of conversation under such circumstances as accompany a public exhibition, I was able to note down a great many valuable data, especially as concerns folk-lore; I wrote out more than fifty tales. They were extremely pleased to find themselves treated, not as curiosities or beasts in a show, but as men; my talks with them raised the level of their dignity as members of the same human family, and they felt deeply grateful.

It was during this Exhibition that I succeeded in checking1 my transcriptions. Abbé Rousselet. the illustrious Professor of Phonetics in the College de France, came over to London for the purpose of investigating the Ainu speech, and communicated to me the results obtained, several of which I shall notice in this Preface. Although, as I have said, the subjects examined were exclusively from Hokaido, yet the experiments made with them coincided in great part with the observations I had made.

The whole folk-lore of the Ainus. so far as I am acquainted with it, may be classed as follows:

Ućaśkоmа or in the Hokaido dialect, upаśkома (from u – a sign of mutuality,+ ća or pа, 'the mouth', + ś or śi, 'self' + kо, 'to' + mа, contr. from оmа, 'to lay'). These are tales handed down by oral tradition from one generation to another. They contain the history of the Ainus, in so far as this people can properly be said to possess a history. Along with real facts, such as hunting adventures, we find relations of phenomena which have for their basis a belief in magic and supernatural beings. A characteristic feature of these tales, in contrast to those found amongst the Ghilyaks, is that they constantly relate to some local chief, whose name is even not unfrequently mentioned. The Ghilyaks always make their heroes, not chiefs, but plain members of the tribe: a difference that proceeds from discrepancy in social organization. We must surmise that the immense majority of these tales have been much modified since they were first told; for, on one hand, the narrators are mostly old people, with whom memory begins to fail; and, on the other, we often meet amongst the Ainus with people naturally given to imaginary embellishments, which their descendants of course accept as facts. The story-tellers are usually men; such as since childhood have shown interest in these tales, and being endowed with a good memory, and inclined to question their elders, are willingly entrusted by them with the traditions of the race. Amongst these ućaśkоmа we should distinguish two varieties: one, sоnnо jаj аjnu ućaśkоmа or аjnu śikах ućaśkоmа, – "the true Ainu tales" or "stories of the rise of the Ainus"; and the other: Rurupun niśpа ućаśkоmа, "tales about the rich men of Rurupa". These latter are admittedly extremely old, and are held by the Ainus themselves to be fabulous. These I have met with nowhere but amongst the Ainus in Saghalien.
Тuitа, from tu, 'two', itа, 'to speak' (in Saghalien); huskо vеbеḱеrе, 'old news', or tееtа vеbеḱеrе (in Hokaido), 'fairy tales'; under which heading we may class:
а) all tales of animals that act and live like men, and yet manifest the characteristics of brutes: viz., the cunning of the fox, the greed of the wolf, etc.
b) Stories of mutual love and sexual relations between quadrupeds, birds or fishes, on one side, and   human   beings
on the other.
c) Narratives of molestations on the part of goblins or ogres of all sorts.
d) Fantastic adventures, as, v. g. that of a man seeking
a wife whose feet may fit a shoe which is an heirloom of his; or of a maid who wants to marry a man whose likeness she has seen upon an arrow made and shot by himself.
e) Anecdotes   in endless   variety,   all   relating   to   two neighbours,   one of whom   is   clever and   succesful,   and the other is a fool who, trying to ape him. either becomes ridiculous or meets his death, and his wife becomes the former's slave. We should note   that   in   all   these   Ainu   stories, the younger man is cleverer or braver than the older one.
   The Ainus are of opinion that all tuita have their origin in dreams, afterwards told and repeated from mouth
to month. Women and children are the usual narrators,   and while away the long winter evenings in telling them.
Оjnа, i.e. 'ancient'; (but jaj ojna means: to relate to oneself). In Hokaido, this genre is also called kаmuj iukаrа, т.е. i. e. 'a divine song'. Legendary lays, which are tales that usually are sung, with an appropriate burden, often equivalent to a title. Some are quite similar in subject-matter to fairy tales. But the greater part of these lays tell of the first Ainu, a demigod, and his conflicts with supernatural foes and wild beasts; in which he is usually accompanied by his sister and his elder brother, who however do not possess his magical powers. We also find in these poems indications concerning the relations between human beings and brutes, which show us why the Ainus acknowledge kindred with them.
These ojna are usually sung in a sitting posture, and by men or women who, in addition to a good memory, possess musical talent and an agreeable voice.
Hаuki, literally, 'make - voice' (or in Hokaido, jukаrа, 'song'). These are narratives, which are sung about the exploits of heroes, and fights between clans. From the stand point of the language, they are the oldest, and therefore the
most interesting specimens of all. In the battles, which take up a good deal of the narrative, women often bear an active part; which shows that we have to do with the vestiges of quite obsolete customs. The hero is usually brought up by his elder sister, or his aunt; and from these he learns the duty incumbent upon him, of vengeance to be taken for the destruction of his family. This kind of production, if handed down from the ancestors, is called hеngi-hаuki; or 'songs of the forefathers'; but there are also ćitаrа-hаuki, i.e. 'dream-songs', which are composed by modern poets in imitation of the forms of ancient speech and life. - - As to the prosody, both of the оjnа, and the hаuki, each line is generally of five syllables, without rhymes but with a strong rhythmical beat, that the singer marks either with the hand, or (in Hokaido) with a short stick. The last syllable of each line is always lengthened out with a shake or trill in the voice, somewhat like the final syllables in certain anthems of the Gregorian plain chant in Catholic churches. From time to time the narrator, when fatigued, drops into a sort of recitative; and perhaps this is why the hаuki are also called, in Hokaido, sа kоrо itа, 'speech having intervals'.

These hаuki, on account of their archaic forms, are only intelligible to the older people, or to men of special talent for language. Formerly there was a class of people who used to go about in the evenings from house to house, singing these hauki, and also the other already mentioned literary productions. How much they were in favour is shown by the very name they bore. of. śi kоnupuru jаrа аjnu, 'men who force people like them', or śe minа jаrа аjnu, 'men who make people laugh'. But when I came amongst the Ainus, there were already no more of them, and new interests were taking up the attention of the people, and filling their lives.

The foregoing species of Ainu literature may be classed as belonging to the genre epos; we now come to lyric poetry, mostly improvisations made by a poet inspired on some special occasion.
Jаjkаtеkаrа, i.e., love-songs, sung both by male and by female lovers, but more especially by girls, and generally when alone. The themes, nevertheless, are somewhat poor, and will not bear comparison with the Ghilyaks' amatory lyrics, full of subtle dramatic force, possibly caused by the severe marriage laws of that race that so often come inconflict with passion, — laws quite non-existent amongst the Ainus.
Snоtća, i. e., recreative songs (from śinоt, 'to amuse'). These are short songs of a light jovial character, usually sung at drinking bouts, and mostly improvised; only the very best of them catch on, and are preserved in the hearers' memory.
Ihunki, i.e. cradle songs (from hум, 'a noise', + кi 'to make'). They are for the most part rhythmical babbling without words, with now and then an improvisation made to the child about its future career, and asking it to sleep soundly.
Jаjjukаrа, 'aimless songs'. They are sung to while away the time on a journey, or whilst fishing. They have now fallen into disuse, because the Ainus care less for singing than they did. But if I may judge from the two texts I have by me, sung during work for Japanese employers, they had considerable merit.
Ćibо hаu, 'boating songs'. In so far as these have any significant contents at all, they are short outbursts, inspired by the occasion and the circumstances of the journey.
Śinоt itаk, i.e., 'funny sayings'. These are short verses containing some joke or quaint saying to create amusement.
Urехrеku, riddles.
Speeches, either on receiving or on parting from guests, prayers, Shaman incantations, etc., form a not unimportant part of prose literature.

VII

The time has not yet come to overhaul Ainu folk-lore, and say which tales are of purely native origin, and which have been borrowed; we have at present too few data for that. It is for the same reason not less impossible to state what parts of it are mere local variations of a common traditions and what parts belong to the whole race; nor into what groups the Ainu territory should be divided with reference to certain folk-lore characteristics. I may, however, venture to give a few hints on these points, with the proviso that I do not consider them as final, and fully recognize that the matter is by no means exhausted. In each text, when it is quite clear that the tale is taken from legends of the Amur tribes, or the Ghilyaks, etc., I have stated this in a note. According to the testimony of the Ainus themselves, the hаuki and the оjnа came from Сои (the most northerly village of Hokaido) where there once was a great yearly fair, whither the Ainus of Saghalien used to come to barter furs for Japanese articles of commerce, and often stayed there a considerable length of time. Now, I heard in Hokaido that these very hаuki , etc;, came from Abuta, a village on Volcano Bay, at the most southern extremity of Yeso peopled by Ainus driven back in recent times from the northern part of Nippon (the province of Nambu), called on that account, Nambu-Ainu. This inclines me to surmise that these tales must have been considerably influenced by Japanese folklore. Not being acquainted with the latter. I cannot be sure; but I have met with at least one fact that points to Japanese influence. In a certain hаuki a hero is represented aa entering a house and squatting on his knees, Japanese fashion, an attitude absolutely unknown to the customs of the Ainus, who sit Turk-wise.
    The Ainus themselves admit that there are differences in the traditions as given in some districts and in others. Thus e.g., the Ainus of the Saru River, can scarce understand the language of the ancient legendary lays of Kusuru, which is held by themselves to be one of the oldest villages, in contradiction to the opinion of many authors that Saru River is the most ancient settlement.
   The principal hero of the ojna goes by different names in different places. In Saghalien, he is named Jаjrеsupo (the self-bred child); in the Saru River, he is Оkikurumi; in the province of Тоkаpći – Mоćarоk, in Аtkeś he is Каśunrе, in Iskari – Ikuresuje, in Кusuru, – Śirаktе. As to the differences between the tales themselves, little is to be said, having only had similar legends of the two first places for terms of comparison, and they were much alike.
   One characteristic difference between the fables of the Saghalien Ainus and those of Yeso is to be seen in the names given respectively to men and to women. Men are called hоrоḱеupо or 'children of the wolf; women are – mоrоmахpо or 'daughters of the house'. For old women the word kаśimа (woman of the house) is employed; for old men, – jеśu (a word I have not been able to analyze). All these words are quite unknown in Yeso — at least in Siravoj and Piratori; -they are also not to be found in Batchelor's Dictionary. They are (as I may conjecture) among the most ancient words of the language; for mоrо (a house), for instance, is met with in Saghalien, in certain prayers. It is also a curious fact that I could get no information from the Saghalien Ainus themselves (East coast) as to their supposed descent from a wolf, nor could they explain to me the origin of the word hоrоḱеupо, whereas I have by me a legend, written under the dictation of an old man of Siravoj, Yeso, concerning a wolf that became the ancestor of the Ainus. The legend is well known and has been noticed by several Japanese and European travellers, but changing the wolf into a dog, Japanese influence being here apparent.

VIII

In the present volume I am publishing twenty-seven ućaśkоmа, all of them taken down in Saghalien, and reserve the remainder of my 350 Ainu texts for publication at some future time.

The two first texts have been rendered both in a strict word-for-word translation and in another version, freer and more
literary. In the others, I have given one translation only. This was as near to the original as I could make it, whilst
preserving intelligibility; such words as it was necessary to add for the understanding of the sense, have been enclosed
between parentheses. In general, in order to be more helpful to students of Ainu, I have sacrificed style, and even at times
grammatical correction.

Each separate texts is followed by remarks (grammatical, ethnographical etc.) which I have made very complete, especially at the beginning: preferring to incur the reproach of unnecessary completeness to that of insufficiency. The numbers before each remark refer to the lines in the texts.

Last — but surely not least — I desire to offer my thanks in general to the Academy of Sciences in Cracow, and in particular to Prof. Ulanowski, General Secretary, who have made it possible for this work of mine to see the light.

I also return most heartly thanks to Prof. J. Rozwadowski for his kindly aid and supervision as to the philological part of my work, and to Mr M. H. Dziewicki for his corrections of the English part.

Although there has been written a great deal about the Ainus, not many works can be regarded as sources, and such as supply the Ainu texts are few indeed. Yet these alone are of any use to one who would get acquainted with the language, distinguish its various dialects, discriminate one form of diction from another, determine the sense of many a dubious word, not easy of translation: or collect synonyms, or discriminate between ancient and modern forms of language: — and in general, to any would-be serious and profound investigator of this fast disappearing race of men, and of their peculiar and hitherto unclassified language. It is and has long been high time to do this; let us hope it may not soon be too late.

The first Ainu texts to be met with in European literature (for we must needs set aside Japanese books, accessible only to the few who are acquainted with Chinese characters) are found in Dr Pfitzmaier's Sitzungs-berichte der Philos. Hist. Classe der K. Akademie der Wissens. in Wien 1850. There are three complete pieces, together with the first sentences of a fourth, taken out of an Ainu-Japanese dictionary, 'Mo-siwo-gusa': whose author, if we may judge by the names of places that he gives (Abasiri, Tokapci) compiled it in the North-East part of Yeso. The renderings of most of the words are also in general mere translations of the remarks in the Japanese dictionary. So far as it is allowed to judge from a transcription that is not over-accurate, the 'Katakaua' alphabet does not succeed in representing the sounds of the Ainu language. The first three extracts are ordinary conversations concerning various occurrences of life, but expressed in that special rhythmical style called sa-koro-ita (see p. 10). The fourth, of which the beginning is scarce given, is a real julcara poem (see above, p. XVII) and deserves to be some day transcribed again, but in Latin characters, and translated as well as possible. At any rate, we must admire the extraordinary industry of this learned member of the Academy of Vienna, who, though having so small a store of words at hand, — and even these diversely transcribed, as in Davidoff, La Peyrouse, and Mo-bivo-gusa — has nevertheless succeeded in correcting several times, and with much perspicacity, the explanations given by the author of the first Ainu dictionary. But the texts in question can be of no use but to persons already well acquainted with the language.
Dr Brylkin, a member of Fr. Schmidt's Russian expedition to Saghalien, who undertook to make researches amongst the Ainus, published (in the notes of the Siberian Department, Russian Imperial Geographical Society, vol. VII, 1864) an Ainu lullaby, consisting of sounds without any meaning. Although Brylkin was once present at a performance, improvised and sung by an Ainu who related a journey of his to the audience, he nevertheless assumed that this people had no ancient songs handed down to them from their forefathers.
Dr Dobrotworski, at the end of his Ainu-Russian Dictionary (ed. 1875) gives on p. 90 three short pieces in the Saghalieu dialect, which together fill one page. They are: (a) an address of some length to a friend at his departure; (b and c), conversations between two men that, having quarrelled, desire a reconciliation. One of these has no translation appended, and the other two bear no accents. In dividing words, the author not nnfrequently sets aside etymological reasons, and writes the words as he heard them (Of. my own remarks on the subject, p. 9). Several words have not been properly rendered. Besides these, on p. 59 of the same work, Dr Dobrotworski quotes some lines of a song, which are rather the interjections and cries of dancers, and are made up of sounds that now are, and possibly always were, quite meaningless.
Dr Scheube in his paper. "Die Ainos" (Mittheilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft fur Natur und Volkerkunde Ostasiens Band III 1882) gives a text of one short song with a translation. Rev. J. Summers in his paper -'An Aino-English Vocabulary" (Trantactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. XIV, 1886) gives 53 phrases in the Saru dialect.
"The language, Mythology and Geographical Nomenclature of Japan, viewed in the light of Ainu Studies" by B. H, Chamberlain (Publications of Tokyo University, 1887): in the second part of this book "An Ainu Grammar" by J. Batchelor, there are three Ainu texts with English translations.
In 1888—1890, in the Trans, of the Asiatic Soc. of Japan, vol. XVI and XVII, fiev. J. Batchelor published nine specimens of the Ainu folklore in Yeso. Besides the translations of these, he also gives a great many philological and ethnographical remarks. It is the most valuable work hitherto achieved in this field; and we can but regret deeply that the writer has not yet published the whole of his rich collection of folk-lore.
In the same publication for 1895 (Vol. XXIV) the same writer gives, on pages 66 and 67, a couple of short prayers made before drinking sake in his essay on "Ainu words as illustrative of customs and matters pathological, psychological and religious". From pp. 100 to 105 he gives a text (with translation but unaccompanied by any explanatory notes), a tale about a recent case of a spell thrown, of the efforts of the Shaman's to break the spell, and of a Japanese official's judgement in the matter.
The same author, in his book: "The Ainus and their folk-lore", London, 1901, — possibly because this was written for a wider circle of readers, has given but one text — containing a narrative about a shaman, the same that was mentioned in the work 1 have already quoted; of course accompanied with a translation. The other tales and legends are only given in a translation which we may surmise to be a somewhat free one.

II.

The following writers have published as materials for folklore certain Ainu translations without the text.

B. H. Chamberlain, The Folk-lore Journal, vol. VI, 1888:"Aino-Folklore".
J. Batchelor in the same No: "Some Specimens of Aino Folk-lore".
B. H. Chamberlain, Aino Folk-Tales (edited by the Folk-Lore Society, London 1888).
Dr B. Scheube in his essay, "Die Ainos", published (1882) in the "Mittheilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Natur und Völkerkunde Ostasiens" Band III.

What others have written on the subject consists merely of extracts from the authors noticed above.

III.

A list of the principal works written about the Ainus (in european languages).

Д. Анучин. Матерiалы для антропологiи Восточной Азии. I. Племя айновъ. Moskva, 1875.

J. Batchelor. An Ainu-English Dictionary (Including a grammar of the Ainu language) . Second edition Tokyo. 1905.

J. Batchelor. The Ainus and Their Folklore. London 1901..

M. Dobrotvorskij. Айнско-русскiй словарь и Приложенiя. Kazań 1875.

K. Hitchock. The Ainos of Yezo, Japan. Report of the National Museum. Washington 1890.

Dr Y. Koganei. Beiträge zur phisischen Anthropologie der Aino. Tokyo, 1893 – 1894.

Dr B. Scheube. Die Ainos. Mittheil. d. Deutschen Gesellsch. für Nat.- und Völkerk. Ostasiens III (1882)

L. Schrenk. Reisen und Forschungen in Amurlande. St. Petersburg, 1855 – 1856.

H. Siebold. Ethnologische Studien über die Aino auf der Insel Yesso. Berlin, 1881.

Ph. Fr. Siebold. Nippon, Archiv zur Beschreibung von Japan und dessen Neben-und Schutzländern, 1835.

A list of the present writer's papers on the Ainus:

Очерк экономического быта айнов на о. Сахалине и статистика их. Edition ot the Society for the Exploration of the Amurland. Vladivostok 1907.

Отчет по поездке к айнам и орокам на о. Сахалин 1903 – 1905 гг. Published by Russian Commetee of the International Association for the Investigation of Central and Eastern Asia. St. Petersburg 1907.

Der Schamanismus bei den Ainu Stämmen von Sachalin // Globus. Vol. XCV. N. 5. Braunschweig, 1909.

Das Bärenfest der Ainen auf Sachalin // Globus. Vol. XCVI. N. 3 and 4. Braunschweig, 1909.

Die Urbewohner von Sachalin // Globus. Vol. XCVI. N. 21. Braunschweig, 1909.

Schwangerschaft, Entbindung und Fehlgeburt bei den Bewohnern der Insel Sachalin // Anthropos. Bd. V. N. 4. Vienna, 1910.

Szamanizm u tubylców Sachalinu // Lud. Kwartalnik etnograficzny., Tom XVI. Z. II. Lwów, 1909 i 1910.

Ľaccouchement, la grossesse et ľ île Sakhaline // Bulletins et Memoires de la Societé ďAnthropologie de Paris, 1909.

An article in the Encyclopaedia of Brockhaus and Efron. Айны. Second Edition. St. Petersburg 1910.

Specimens of Ainu folklore. American Folklore Journal. 1912 (I have seen this paper in proof, but am not aware yet in what number of the Journal it has appeared).

Les signes de proprieté chez les Ainos // Revue ďEthnographie et de Sociologie. Paris, 1912 (Same remark as above).